Pteridium aquilinum - Bracken

• Family: Dennstaedtiaceae Family
  
• Other Names: Western brackenfern ^[E-flora]

• SUBTAXA PRESENT IN BC
  • Pteridium aquilinum ssp. lanuginosum
  • Pteridium aquilinum ssp. latiusculum ^[E-flora]

Synonyms

• Pteris aquilina. ^[PFAF]

"Pteridium aquilinum is a FERN growing to 1.2 m (4ft) by 2 m (6ft 7in) at a fast rate."
"It is hardy to zone (UK) 4. The seeds ripen from Jul to August."
"Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils. Suitable pH: acid and neutral soils and can grow in very acid soils."
"It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It prefers dry or moist soil. The plant can tolerate maritime exposure."^[PFAF]

• Origin Status: Native ^[E-flora]
• Habitat / Range "Dry to wet forest margins, peat bogs, avalanche tracks, clearings, roadsides, burns, dry openings in forest and meadows, from the lowland and steppe to subalpine zones; common in BC south of 55degreeN (ssp. lanuginosum) or rare in the steppe zone S BC (ssp. latiusculum); cosmopolitan, E to W AB, disjunct to MB and ON, and S to GA, TX, NM, AZ and CA; Eurasia, Africa, Australia, S America." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]} "THE common Brake or Bracken is perhaps the most abundant and widely distributed of all our ferns. It is found nearly through- out North America and in Europe and Asia as well. It prefers open situations in woods, pastures, along roadsides and in waste lands generally.... In the East it does not grow so luxuriantly but often covers large areas almost to the exclusion of everything else." ^[EWP]
• Ecological Indicator Information: "A shade-tolerant/intolerant, submontane to subalpine, cosmopolitan fem (transconti­nental in North America). Occurs on water-shedding and water-receiving sites in boreal, temperate, mesotherrnal, and tropical climates; its occurrence decreases with increasing latitude and elevation. Scattered in coniferous forests where it is usually associated with Gaultheria shallon, Hylacamium splendens, and Vaccinium parvifolium; plentiful to abundant. often dominant, in initial communities on cutover and burnt sites where its vigorous growth and litter­fall may hinder growth of conifers. Characteristic of fire-disturbed sites." (IPBC)^[E-flora]
• Differentiating Characteristics: You often see mature ferns growing alongside the fiddleheads, as well as dried-out fronds from last year. Bracken fiddleheads are easy to distinguish from other unopened ferns because of the wolly, grayish-white color, and the lack of scaly coverings or long hairs. When you find one fiddlehead, you usually find a whole colony, because the bracken propogates underground by long, branched, wolly, hairy, spreading rhizomes. ^[Wild]
• General: "Deciduous perennial from a long, creeping, underground rhizome." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
  
• Leaves: Large, triangular, 3-pinnate, 60-170 cm long, 30-100 cm wide, with long, thick stipes, the ultimate segments numerous, woolly to smooth on the lower surface. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
  
• Notes: Most BC plants of this species belong to P. aquilinum ssp. lanuginosum. Two subspecies can be distinguished as follows:
  
  • 1. Leaves broadly triangular, but rarely divided in 3 main segments; pinnules nearly at right angles to the rachis, their lower surface densely woolly or woolly short-hairy; the inner indusium fringed and sometimes also hairy.................... ssp. lanuginosum (Bong.) Hult.
    
  • 1. Leaves mostly with 3 main subdivisions; pinnules at an oblique angle to the rachis, their lower surface nearly smooth and short-hairy only on the midrib; the inner indusium without hairs......................... ssp. latiusculum (Desv.) C.N. Page ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}

"Although Moerman (1998) and Balick et al. (2000) separate Pteridium aquilinum var. caudatum into Pteridium caudatum, Wunderlin (1998) retains both as a single species. Regardless, P. aquilinum is widespread and was used by people from Alaska to Mexico and Florida." ^{[Daniel F. Austin]}

Hazards

• Toxins: "The bracken plant is known to contain several poisonous compounds, including a cyanide-producing glycoside (prunasin), an enzyme, thiaminase, that reduces the body's thiamine reserves, and at least two potent carcinogens, quercetin and kaempferol. Another, unidentified toxin is believed to be a naturally occurring, radiation-mimicking substance, also apparently mutagenic and carcinogenic." ^{[Turner, Kuhnlein]} "Older parts are poisonous (Morton 1968b), and King (1984) warns against using it for food at any stage." ^{[Daniel F. Austin]}
  • Carcinogenic: "The leaves are also said to be carcinogenic[65, 76]." ^[PFAF]
  • Thiaminase: "The leaves and roots contain substances that deprive the body of vitamin B1 if they are eaten raw, though they are possibly alright cooked[102]." ^[PFAF]
• Livestock: "Bracken has caused many livestock deaths. The risks to humans of eating bracken fiddleheads and rhizomes have not been fully established, but their safety is questionable." ^{[Turner, Kuhnlein]} "...bracken fern has been established as the cause of well-recognized toxicity syndromes in livestock, such as thiamine deficiency in horses and pigs, acute hemorrhagic syndrome in cattle, retinal degeneration of sheep, urinary bladder neoplasm of various tissue types and epithelial tumors of the upper gastrointestinal tracts of ruminants (Vetter, 2009)." ^[SPI]
• Spores: "There are a number of reports regarding the possible health risks of this plant. The huge quantity of spores released by large areas of bracken are suggested to be implicated in stomach cancers. A recent study suggests that this is not such a problem in Britain as was once believed, the spores are not produced in such high quantities nor do they travel so far due to our normally humid atmosphere." ^[PFAF]

Carcinogenic Properties

"It is well known that bracken fern causes a number of well-recognized toxicity syndromes in farm animals and humans, including carcinogenic activity (Vetter, 2009). In addition, we recently discovered that P. aquilinum induces immunotoxic effects, which are mainly characterized by a reduction in NK cell activities (cytotoxicity and IFNγ production) ( Latorre et al., 2009). The NK cell is one of the principal effector cells of innate immunity and has the capability to kill virally infected cells as well as certain tumor cells ( Abbas et al., 2007).... Se supplementation prevents and reverses these effects. Taken together, these results show, for the first time, that the immunosuppressive effects of bracken fern in mice are caused by ptaquiloside and can be prevented as well as reversed by Se supplementation." ^[SPI]

• "Ptaquiloside is an instable glucoside present in the widely distributed bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum). Under alkaline conditions, it is converted in a conjugated diene-one which is readily added to various nucleophilic compounds. Therefore, it has a carcinogenic potency [9]." ^{[Ramawat NP]}
• Bracken fern can also produce indirect toxicity through the consumption of milk from plant-fed cattle.^[SPI]
• Recent investigations have also shown that ptaquiloside pollution in different soil layers is possible, and ptaquiloside may leach from the soil into the drinking water.^[SPI]
• ...there are many compounds found in the bracken, but the carcinogenic effects have been attributed to ptaquiloside, which is considered the main carcinogen in P. aquilinum ( Yamada et al., 2007).^[SPI]
• "Consumption of bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) by cattle induces bladder and intestinal carcinomas [1, 2].... Epidemiological studies in Japan have provided evidence that oesophageal cancer in that country can be correlated with consumption of bracken fronds [6]." ^[PPC] "Japanese people who eat commercially available bracken in quantity all year have elevated rates of stomach cancer. Nevertheless, I wouldn't be afraid of eating reasonable quantities of wild fiddleheads during their short season." ^[Wild]
• Ptaquiloside: "An active principle responsible for mutagenic activity was isolated....In subsequent studies, methods have been used to isolate pure ptaquiloside from bracken fern [9, 10] giving yields of the active compound of 0.014-0.15%. The compound was found to be responsible for > 50% of the mutagenic activity observed after incubation of the methanol extract at alkaline conditions, and found to be a potent genotoxic compound in mammalian cells in vitro [8]. Because our work involved mechanistic studies of ptaquiloside when administered to rats, a large quantity (1-2 g) of pure compound was needed. Analytical procedures using a pure standard of ptaquiloside revealed that bracken fern growing in northern Queensland contained a high concentration of the active principle, 0.035-1.29% [11], but the task of recovering this from the plant appeared formidable given that most reported recoveries were very low and the methods used lengthy. The best reported recovery of ptaquiloside is given by van der Hoeven et al. [8] at 0.25%.... A number of properties of ptaquiloside became apparent in the course of our method development. Apart from its instability under acid and alkaline conditions [7, 8, 12], a high proportion was lost by concentration in water, particularly when the temperature was raised above 40^O. To resort to concentration of large volumes of aqueous solution by freeze-drying was found to be time-consuming. Ptaquiloside was found to be unstable to storing at — 5^O in aqueous solutions even for short periods (2 days), but stable for at least 6 months in methanol at the same temperature. Some ptaquiloside was lost by drying at 40^O, hence, in our work, solutions were never dried completely except at low temperatures. To avoid loss of ptaquiloside by the action of light all flasks and columns were shielded with a layer of aluminum foil where possible.... A problem in the purification of ptaquiloside was its instability in water." ^[PPC]

Edible Uses

This is a fern that is widely used as food in many countries of the world. ^[Harrington] Human use of P. aquilinum has a long history.^[TPNA] "The young fronds and the rootstocks have often been used in many countries, especially in times of food shortage. It was a favourite edible plant with our North American Indians and, at least at one time, appeared in the markets of cities in the eastern part of the United States. The mature leaves, especially in hay, seem to be [poisonous]. It might be well to go slow on eating bracken in any stage, until you are sure you are not sensitive to it. We have certainly had no bad effects from eating the young leaves or rootstocks." ^[Harrington]

• Leaves: "The young buds (fiddleheads) are edible." ^{[Daniel F. Austin]} The very young shoots, picked in Spring and harvested well before they unfurl, can be fried in butter or oil. These are delicious and I use them, in limited quantity, as a substitute for asparagus. ^{[Personal Observation]} "Young shoots, harvested when still unfurling, can be eaten raw or cooked[2, 13, 55, 62, 94, 102, 183, 257]. They can be used like asparagus or like spinach[9, 257]." ^[PFAF] The young developing fronds or croziers are held in high esteem, especially in Brazil and Japan, where they are eaten fresh, lightly cooked,or preserved (Hirono 1990; Santos et al. 1990, Veitch 1990). ^[TPNA] The indians are also said to have eaten the young fronds raw. This is a fairly good emergency food plant, but not flavorful enough to warrant our recommending it for general use. ^[Harrington]
  • Caution: The fiddleheads are safe only before their fronds uncurl. ^[Wild] "Occasional use should cause no problems, but regular consumption is not advisable because the shoots might be carcinogenic[9, 65]." ^[PFAF]
  • Taste: In the early days in California, vegetables were scarce and the miners gathered the tender fronds of this fern, boiled them, and ate them as asparagus. I have tried this and found the bracken rather pleasant eating. The stalks are somewhat mucilaginous. ^[EWP] Somewhat flavourless, though they are considered to be a delicacy in Japan[4]." ^[PFAF] Benjamin Clarke (1857) investigated the use of young and tender bracken fronds, blanched, as a food. He distributed parcels of fronds as samples of a new, unnamed, vegetable, to various unsuspecting ‘I. . . parties who have, all of them, in return sent back written acknowledgements. . . stating that it was equal or superior to others named by them.” He recommended Pteridium fronds as a substitute for asparagus and this recommendation, has been repeated by other English authors. ^[THEB]
  • Harvesting: Late spring is the best time to search for bracken. Compared to other ferns, it's a slowpoke. You may even see its little heads slowly unfurling fro the soil in the summer. Break off the young fiddlehead tip close to the ground, so you have a sprout about 6 to 8 inches long. Old individuals become to fibrous to snap. Take only a very small portion of the fiddleheads in each spot. Unlike flowering plants , the ferns won't grow back. ^[Wild] "The fronds should be used when less than 20cm long, longer ones have a terrible taste[9, 213]." ^[PFAF]
  • Preparation: Rub off the white-green wool, and cook like asparagus, 20 to 30 minutes. Tannins turn the cooking water brown and bitter. Discard the water, or use it for medicine or dye. ^[Wild] We took the uncoiling fronds when they were about 4 to 7 inches tall, cutting off the very base if it seemed tough, and also the curled up tops. We then removed the woolly hairs by drawing them through our fingers, this often done under water. We boiled these stalks about 30 minutes, changing the water twice and served them in any of the various ways that asparagus is prepared. We found them somewhat mucilaginous and more or less bitter tasting, not pleasant, but at least edible. They appeared best when creamed or fried in bread crumbs. ^[Harrington] "The shoots are somewhat bitter so they are often blanched for a few minutes in boiling water, then left to soak in cold water for two hours before being cooked[4, 9]. Although this might well improve the flavour, it will greatly reduce the nutritional value[K]. The shoots should be steeped in lye first[55]."^[PFAF]
  • Beer: In Siberia and Norway, the uncoiled fronds have been employed in brewing a kind of beer. ^[Harrington]
  • Use in Japan: The brake is highly prized by the Japanese, who use it chiefly in soups.^[EWP] In Japan, bracken fronds, sometimes with a soy sauce, are widely served as an appetizer in bars, just as olives and niblets are served in Europe and America. Demand for bracken fronds in Japan is so high that in 1969 Japan began importing bracken from Siberia, and over 300,000 kg of young fronds are consumed every year in Tokyo alone. ^[THEB]
  • Storage: The dried product is stored for use during the winter. The young fronds in "fiddlehead" condition are collected, boiled and then often dried in the sun.^[Harrington]
• Root: "Root - cooked. It can be dried and ground into a powder[2, 13, 46, 55, 66, 94, 95, 102, 257]." ^[PFAF] The root is viscid, bitterish and, like most of the fern tribe, has a salty and mucilaginous taste. When burned, the ashes yield more salt than other vegetables. ^{[CEUPW ]}...dug and eaten by virtually all coastal groups, and several interior groups...^{[Turner, Kuhnlein]}
  • Starch: "Bracken rhizomes were commonly eaten by the Kwakiutl. They contain starch, a substance rare in the Northwest Coast diet." ^{[Turner&Bell2]} [root] broken up and the starch extracted; this is known by the name of "warabi" starch. It is often used to make confections... ^[Harrington] The rhizomes were widely used in Europe by poorer classes as a flour for making bread (Rymer 1976; veitch 1990). Maoris in New Zealand and other peoples in Australasia used the rhizomes in a similar manner.^[TPNA]
  • Caution: The underground parts are somewhat toxic. (Don't try to use them.) ^[Wild] "The root has a somewhat constipating effect upon the body so is best eaten with foods that have a laxative quality[256]." ^[PFAF]
  • Taboos: "There were some taboos associated with bracken. Among the Kwakwaka'wakw, it was believed that only old women should dig the rhizomes; it would make young women sick. The Lillooet believed that if the central fibers were eaten, they would cause paralysis. Among the Halkomelem, there is a story about a man who dug the rhizomes too late in the season (i.e., in summer) and his body became infested with snakes. Other groups, such as the Clallam of Washington and the Nuxalk, also relate bracken rhizomes to snakes in their traditional beliefs." ^{[Turner, Kuhnlein]}
    
  • Taste: The rootstocks have been cooked and found, by us, to be tough and unpalatable. ^[Harrington]
    • Lewis and Clark's....write; "The bark is black, thin, brittle, and rather rough, and easily separates in flakes from the part which is eaten: the centre is divided into two parts by a strong, flat, and white ligament, like a piece of thin tape; on each side of which is a white substance, resembling, after the root is roasted, both in appearance and flavour, the dough of wheat. It has, however, a pungency which is disagreeable, but the natives eat it voraciously, and it seems to be very nutritious (Biddle, 1962, pp. 379-80)." ^[EBFF]
  • Properties: The root contains 60% starch[74]. The dry weight content of starch is between 43 and 72%[173]. ^[PFAF]
  • Harvesting: rhizomes were dug in late fall or winter by most groups, but in summer by some.^{[Turner, Kuhnlein]} "The rhizomes were dug in soft soil, then coiled up and tied with a spruce root. Only old women were allowed to dig bracken; it was thought to make young women sick." ^{[Turner&Bell2]} The rhizomes were dug in the late fall or winter, and were always eaten fresh, as they didn't keep well." ^{[Turner&Bell]}
  • Preparation: They were usually roasted over the coals of a fire, then pounded to remove the black "bark" and to separate out the tough, central fibers, which were not eaten. The white, starchy part was often eaten with oil, animal or fish grease, or salmon eggs. The Nuu-chah-nulth groups and the Haida often roasted the rhizomes in underground pits. [Turner, Kuhnlein] Some groups ate the rhizomes only when fresh ^{[Turner, Kuhnlein]} They were roasted in the ashes, peeled and the mealy center eaten to supply the starchy element in the diet....The Cowlitz also eat the tops of the young plants raw. The Swinomish store baked rhizomes in baskets. The Lummi dig the roots after the weather turns cold. The Skagit dig ferns at Birdsview and select only those that ooze juice....^[EBFF] "The rhizomes were roasted until the "bark" was blackened, beaten with a wedge until soft, and broken into pieces four finger widths long. They were eaten with sticky salmon spawn or with oulachen grease (Boas, 1921)." ^{[Turner&Bell2]} "The Coast Salish roasted the rhizomes over coals, then pounded them until the fibrous woody cortex was removed. The remaining part was soft and starchy, and was generally eaten with fish, eggs, or oil because it was constipating (Barnett, 1955)." ^{[Turner&Bell]}
  • Bread: Some groups pounded the rhizomes into flour and made a kind of bread which was baked in the ashes. However, Suttles (1951) points out that... this procedure was of recent origin." ^{[Turner&Bell]} The Indians dried them, then ground them to a meal (or ground them and then dried the meal) ^[Harrington] The Straits Salish, Lillooet, Nlaka'pamux, and several western Washington groups made a type of bread by pounding the edible part of the roasted rhizomes into flour, mixing this with water, and forming the resulting dough into flat cakes, which were then roasted. ^{[Turner, Kuhnlein]} A bread can be made out of the dried and powdered rhizomes, and was being eaten by the Maoris of New Zealand well into the 19th century. A detailed account of its use in New Zealand is given by Hooker (1861). In the Canaries “a miserable sort of bread” was made by mixing the flour obtained by grinding bracken rhizomes with barley meal (Lindley, 1838). The Rev. M. J. Berkeley spoke of bread made from Pteridium as “better to my taste, and probably not less nutritious, than Cassava bread” (Linton, 1878). But most authors would seem to agree with Lightfoot (1777) when he describes the mixing of fern rhizome with flour, by the poor in Normandy, as a “miserable necessity.” ^[THEB]
  • Storage: "The dried root will store for years[173]." ^[PFAF]

Other Uses

• Fuel: "As almost any dried plant material can be used as a fuel the fact that bracken is often singled out for mention may be more a reflection of its abundance, than of any peculiar properties that it may possess.... In Jersey [it] was mixed with dried seaweed.... Bracken is a light and quick-burning fuel (which is why large areas of bracken form a severe fire risk, particularly in areas used for camping and picnics) and it affords a very violent heat. Purton (1817) describes it being used for burning limestone (and according to John Lucas this was a use to which it was frequently put in Sussex). It was also used for heating ovens, and Lightfoot (1777) mentions,- along with its use in baking, the fact that it was used as a fuel in brewing.... The production of bricks must once have consumed large amounts of bracken. According to Richard Neve (1703) bricks were first dried with wood, but the actual burning was performed with "Bush, Furz, Heath, Brake or Fern Faggots." Some 600 faggots were required to burn a kiln of one thousand Statute-bricks of size 9 x 41/2 x 21/4 inches. The use of fern faggots in brick-making is also described in the first edition of Encyclopedia Britannica, 1769... The use of bracken as a fuel seems to have been fairly widespread, but it was of little ecological consequence, because for this purpose it was not cut until very late in the season." ^[THEB]
• Potash: "Potash is the term originally applied to the alkaline substance obtained by lixiviating the ashes of terrestrial vegetables, and evaporating the solution in large iron pans or pots (whence the name). Chemically, it is a crude form of potassium carbonate.... Bracken stands out, not only because it has a high potassium content, but also because it has a large proportion of ash per unit dry weight. So long as it was in plentiful supply, it would seem to be the obvious plant to use for potash production. Note, however, that other constituents of the ash may have been important for various processes..." ^[THEB]
  
  • According to Berry (1917) potash content is determined more by the age and condition of the frond than by the varying soil conditions experienced by the plants. ... Although the percentage of potash in the ash is highest in the young fronds, the bracken harvest should take place in July or August, in order to obtain the greatest yield of potash per acre. Berry (1917) recommends that harvesting should begin when some of the pinnules begin to wither, and when the green begins to give place to a yellowish colour in the stems. Under the favourable conditions of Dundonald Glen and Shewalton Moss, about four acres of fully stocked bracken land yield one ton of ash. At Cleavance seven acres of land are required to produce one ton of ash.... the need for collecting the plant at the correct time of the year was even then recognized: ‘‘. . . those who burn Brakes for their ashes. . . . do it while they are green and strong, cutting them down and give fire to them, and so let them burn in great heaps, with a smothering fire: whereas if they should let them till they turn yellow, and then burn them, they would not get (as they find by experience), half so much Salt.” One advantage of cutting the bracken later in the year would be that its vigour the following year would not be reduced; it is well known that repeated cutting of the plant in mid-summer will kill the plant within a few years. It is worth emphasizing that only the fronds seem to have been used as a source of potash. ^[THEB]
    
  • The technology of burning bracken seems to have been very simple. One of the most detailed descriptions is given by James Dunbar (1736), and I will quote it in full:
    • “Take a Piece of burning Peat-Coal, about the Bigness of your Fist, and lay on it a handful or Two of dry Breckens by Degrees, and you will soon have a Fire; continue thus till you lay on a Cart-Load or Two, but you must take Care they do not Flame; . . . . When your Fire is near burnt down, you must steer it up from the Bottom, till that which lyes in the Heart . . . be burnt black, then steer them up frequently till they turn white; afterwards you may augment the Fire upon the same Heap, and burn on so long as you have Day-Light; if the Wind blows too much, make a Sconce of Breckens to the Windward, to prevent the Ashes blowing away: If there come a deal of Rain, you must house or hut them with the Ash-Board; if it be small Rain or flying Showers, throw on Breckens on the Fire, which will defend it; if you burn more than one Day house every Day’s burning at Night; and, being put all in a Heap, they will burn themselves for some Days, till all turn white, and be sure they will be turned twice or thrice a Day, from the Bottom to the Top, and they will be whiter; then, when they are cold, sift and barrel them. ” ^[THEB]
      
  • It is remarkable how similar this is to the method recommended by Berry, in 1917. The main difference is that Berry replaces the ‘Ash-Board’ by corrugated sheet-iron, or tarpaulins, and suggests that the base of the fire should first be hollowed out.... In the Lake District specially constructed pits were used.... The pits are very uniform in size, and never more than 11 feet diameter internally.... At least three works were written in Scotland at this time that deal with the production of potash from bracken.... All three of these works are concerned mainly with bleaching, and may well be a result of the encouragement given to the linen industry by the state, beginning in 1727 (Turner, 1972). Bracken ash was widely used for other purposes at that time, and Home (1756) said the Irish were already making great use of bracken ash in bleaching fields. With the well known scarcity of timber in Scotland, many districts would have had no option but to use fern ash." ^[THEB]
• Glassmaking: (Pteridium aquilinum)
  • Plant Ashes: "They are also used in the manufacture of glass (when mixed with sand) and in making soap (when mixed with vegetable oil)[4, 74]. The roots contain up to 20% potash in early summer, but this reduces to about 5% in the autumn[4]." ^[PFAF]
  • History: "Glass... is produced by fusing silica (sand), which comprises about three-quarters the whole, with a potash or soda flux which renders the silica fusible at a relatively low temperature. The need for a second base (Ca, from lime), to make for easier working, and to produce a greater toughness, was not recognized until 1689, it having previously been present as an impurity in the soda or potash (Turner, 1956a...)."^[THEB]
    
  • "Potash glass is heavier than soda glass and is more difficult to work and manage because it passes from the molten into the rigid state more rapidly. Being harder and more brilliant it is especially suitable for certain decorative techniques such as facet-cutting (Savage, 1973). The earliest known recipes for glass date from 1700 BC and are all for soda glass (Turner, 1956b). Potash glass did not become common until the end of the 10th century AD when the European glassmakers began utilizing the ashes of bracken and other land plants on a large scale (Douglas & Frank, 1972). It then became characteristic of Britain and central Europe, whilst soda glass continued to be made in a few coastal regions." "Birinuccio, in his book Pirotechnia written in 1540, tells the prospective glass maker to ". . . take ashes made from the saltwort [Salicornia] . . . Now some say that this ash is made from fern and some from lichen; which of these it does not matter here . ." (Douglas & Frank, 1972). Taylor & Singer (1956) state, without giving any references, that ashes of bracken were especially esteemed for glass making, and that in England they ". . were said to be used exclusively.""^[THEB]
  • "It seems likely that several sources of potash were used, even at a single site. The ashes of the wood used in firing the furnace, for example, might have been used along with bracken ash. A 12th or 13th century addition to the third book of Eraclius, after describing the manufacture of colourless glass from fern ashes, says that purple or flesh-coloured glass can be produced by using the ashes of the beech tree (Hawthorne & Smith, 1963). Beech ash contains large amounts of manganese, and the different oxidation levels of manganese are probably responsible for the colours described by Eraclius and Theophilus (Turner, 1956b). Clear, colourless glass was especially valued, and could be made most easily with bracken."^[THEB]
    
  • Although large quantities of alkali were being imported into Britain by the 18th century, bracken still played a role in the glass industry. ^[THEB]

• Soap "The rhizome lathers readily in water and can be used as a soap[74]."^[PFAF]
  • Process:"Soap is made by combining oils and fats with alkaline bases. According to Gibbs (1939), it was an important medical preparation among Anglo-Saxon leeches, but it is quite likely to have been in use long before then, and alkaline ashes were probably used by themselves before, as well as after, the invention of soap.... Various 15th century recipes for soap exist, and one for white soap is quoted by Gibbs (1939). Fern ash was to be mixed with unslaked lime to produce a lye which was to stand for two days. This was then to be run out from a hole in the bottom of the barrel into a metal kettle, mixed with oil and tallow, and made seething hot. After thickening with bean flour, it could be moulded by hand."^[THEB]
    
  • History: "The use of bracken ash in the manufacture of soap continued into 17th century England, being mentioned by Simpson (1669). An indication of the importance of bracken at this time is given by the fact that, in November 1634, Patrick Mauld of Panmure was granted a patent, for 31 years, for "the sole and full licence to make and cause to be made . . . soap for washing of clothes" in Scotland. The King, considering that there were certain ingredients necessary for the making of soap, which it might be as well to obtain from within the Kingdom, also gave Mauld sole licence "to make potasses . . . of all sorts of ferns and other vegetable things whatsoever, fit for the purpose" (Chambers, 1858).... Often, however, bracken ashes were used by themselves.... In Kank Wood [Cannock Chase] they would "rowle" the ashes up in balls "and so sell them or use them all the year for washing and scouring, and send much up to London, the ashe balls being easily sent about." (Morris, 1947). This practice also occurred in Warwickshire where "above any country in this land, instead of sope to wash their clothes, [they] gather the female ferne . . . make it up into good big balls, which when they will use them they burne them in the fire, untill it becomes blewish, which being then laid by, will dissolve into powder of itself, like unto lime: foure of these balls being dissolved in warme water is sufficient to wash a whole bucke full of clothes" (Parkinson, 1640). Lightfoot (1777) says that the use of bracken ash to wash linen was of importance in some parts of Scotland.... The burning of bracken to make soap continued into the 19th century." In the 1830s women in the Forest of Dean went "day after day into the woods to cut, and then burn, the green fern to make ley to put into hard water to wash our clothes, and the clothes of the aristocracy." The ash balls were sold "by the dozens to the shops in Gloucester" (Hart, 1966)."^[THEB]
• Thatching: "The dried ferns produce a very durable thatch[4]." ^[PFAF] The use of bracken as thatch is a well-known, and an old-established practice.... In 1688 Randle Holme defined thatching as “. . . to cover . . . with Straw, Fern, Rushes, or Gorst.”" "Pennant (1776) said that the general thatch on Skye was fern. He thought it would last “above twenty years”, which agrees with Smith’s statement (1805) that a good coat of bracken, well put on, would last 15 to 20 years. Under particularly favourable conditions a bracken thatch need not be replaced for 30 years (Campbell, 1831). Only a heather thatch will last longer." "The use of a bracken thatch was by no means confined to Scotland. In Lancashire it was thought that “fern made the best [thatch] being naturally dry, and not apt to ferment like straw” (Holt, 1795). References to bracken thatch could be quoted from most other counties." "On Skye both the frond and rhizome were used in the thatch (Pennant, 1776), but it was more usual to use only the fronds, and then with some branches removed. Braid (1934) says that the rhizomes were used in the thatch. Detailed instructions for making a fern thatch are given by Campbell (1831). He estimates that an average crofter’s house in Scotland, 40 feet long, with a roof 13 feet high, would require 115 1/2 square yards of thatch. In an area where fern was abundant an “active man” would be able to pull a cart load of fern a day, enough to thatch an area of about 6 1/2 square yards. It is obvious that considerable quantities of fern might be used up in this way, but as the thatching was not carried out until mid-September to October, it would not lead to the eradication of the bracken." ^[THEB]
• Dye: "The rhizome can be used to dye wool yellow (Fairweather, 1973), and tartan dyed with fern is on display in the museum in Fort William. The plant was still being used for dyeing tweed in 1914 (Scott, 1914)." ^[THEB] "A brown dye is obtained from the fronds[6, 67, 141]. It is green according to another report[141]." ^[PFAF] Boil fiddleheads to provide a clear yellow-green coloring for cotton fabric.^[Wild] "Yellow and green dyes are extracted from the roots (King 1984, Tull 1999)." ^{[Daniel F. Austin]} "Kaempferol from Bracken used as a dye; Yellow; brownish yellow, yellow, lemon-yellow and deep olive-brown with chromium, aluminium, tin and iron, respectively. Used for Calico printing, cotton, wool, silk." ^{[Singh HNDP]}
• Alcohol: "Braid (1940) has suggested that the carbohydrate of bracken could be fermented for the production of power alcohol. Several authors state that the rhizomes of Pteridium were used as a substitute for hops in the brewing of beer, one third rhizome being mixed with two thirds malt. This was meant to occur in Siberia “and other places.” ^[THEB] In siberia and other northern countries, the inhabitants brew the roots in their ale, mixing one-third of roots with two-thirds of malt." ^{[CEUPW ]}
• Glue: "A glue can be made from the rootstock[74]." ^[PFAF]
• Fibre: "The fibre could be converted into bracken board. At that time he thought that “the feasibility of small local industries [based on bracken] is not a dream.” It was recently suggested that “some consideration might well be given to the possibility of evolving some economic use of bracken, such as the manufacture of paper” (Denman et al., 1967). However, it has already been tried for this purpose but, on account of the wastage in the preparation of the pulp compared with that of esparto grass and because the frequent knots are a disadvantage, its use is definitely not recommended (Berry, 1917)."^[THEB]
• Tinder: "The fibrous remnants from edible roots make a good tinder[99]." ^[PFAF] "Like those of Dryopteris austriaca, bracken roots were used to make a "slow match" (Boas, 1909)." ^{[Turner&Bell2]}
• Hairwash: "A decoction of the root has been used as a hair wash[257]. The roots have been rubbed into the scalp in order to promote hair growth[257]." ^[PFAF]
• Basketry: "The roots have been pounded to remove the bark, then split into flat bands and used as the black strands of cheap baskets[257]." ^[PFAF] "Beds of sedge (Carex spp.) along lowland streams and rivers in California and bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum var. pubescens) at 5,000 to 6,000 feet in the Sierra Nevada were weeded intensively to encourage the production of long, creeping rhizomes, which were used extensively by many tribes as the weft or lacing in basketry, or as a design material in coiled and twined baskets." ^{[Anderson TTW]}
• Packing Material: "The leaves are used as a packing material for fruit, keeping it fresh and cool without imparting any colour or flavour[4, 66, 99]. They are also used as a lining for baskets, fruit drying racks etc and as a bedding[66, 99]. The leaves repel insects and can help to prevent rot in the fruits etc[99]." ^[PFAF] "Another well established horticultural use was in the packing and storing of fruit. One of the French names for bracken is “fougere a cerises”, an allusion to its use in packing cherries for market. It was said to keep the fruit in excellent condition (Fenton, 1938) but it might serve other purposes, as is shown by the entry in Machyn’s diary for 1552 when he tells of a man convicted of selling “potts of Straberries, the whych the pott was not alff fulle, but fylled with farne” (Nichols, 1848)." ^[THEB]
• Tanning: "The rhizomes were also said to be “much used abroad in preparing chamois and kid leathers” on account of the quantity of tannin and astringent matter contained in them." ^[THEB] "The astringency is so great that it is used abroad in preparing chamois leather." ^[CEUPW]
• Insect Repellent: "Parkinson (1640) claims the ‘fume of ferne being burned driveth away Serpents, Gnats, and other noisome Creatures that in the Fenny Countries much molest both strangers and inhabitants that lye in bed at night time, with their faces uncovered.” This seems to be true for, in 1973, at the International Meeting of European Quaternary Botanists, I noticed botanists burning bracken in order to repel the midges. Also pertinent is the statement by Long & Fenton (1938) that, if fresh green fronds are boiled up in an old pot, the resulting liquid is effective in killing green fly (Aphis) on roses." ^[THEB]

Medicinal Uses

Langham, in The garden of health (1579), gives 21 recipes for using bracken. “Burnings, Cattell galled, Festers, Gnats, Horsesicke, Kanker, Miltpaine, Mother suffocat, Nosebleeding, Purgation, Sinewes griefes, Skinne off, Sores, Wormes, Wounds” can all be cured by the use of bracken, and it even “maketh women barren” if you know how to use it correctly. ^[THEB]

• Plant: "A decoction of the plant as been used in the treatment of tuberculosis[257]." ^[PFAF] "Ancients used the roots and whole plant in decoctions and diet drinks for the spleen and other disorders. Japanese use it in soup." ^{[CEUPW ]}
  • "The Seminoles used the plant for “Turkey Sickness” (permanently bent toes and fingers) (Sturtevant 1955)." ^{[Daniel F. Austin]}
  • "Murphee (1965) found people in the Panhandle making a tea from the plants to treat burns." ^{[Daniel F. Austin]}
  • Rickets: Also widely quoted is the fact that a bed of green fern is “a sovereign cure for rickets” in children (Cameron, 1900; Lightfoot, 1777; Linton, 1878 etc.). There is general agreement that “the ancients” used the rhizome and fronds in decoctions and diet drinks, especially against chronic disorders arising from obstruction of the viscera, and for hypochondriac cases. In 1779 the point was made that, although there were not wanting “modern authors who give it as high a character . . . as the ancients have done . . . it is an illtasted medicine, and in no great use in the shops” (Tytler, 1779). This makes it all the more surprising that Cameron (1900) describes the rhizome as an aphrodisiac, even though this may be a use supported by the observation of Hendrick (1919) that “bracken makes pigs lively, and take more exercise.” ^[THEB]
• Root: "A tincture of the root in wine is used in the treatment of rheumatism[218]. A tea made from the roots is used in the treatment of stomach cramps, chest pains, internal bleeding, diarrhoea, colds and also to expel worms[4, 46, 94, 222, 257]. The poulticed root is applied to sores, burns and caked breasts[222, 257]." ^[PFAF] Most authors are agreed that the rhizome is antihelmintic (Lindsay, 1853). It is administered as a powder, obtained by drying the rhizome in an oven (Tytler, 1779). Langham (1579) recommends that the powder be dissolved in wine. Parkinson (1640) dispenses with the powder altogether, and suggests the rhizome should be “bruised and boyled in Mede or honeyed water, and drunk” to kill “both the broade and long wormes in the body.” ^[THEB] Indians boiled and ate the rootstocks, as they are starchy; also used them as a diuretic and worm medicine. ^{[CEUPW ]}
  • "Among the relatives of Florida people, the Koasati made a decoction of the roots for chest pain (Taylor 1940)." ^{[Daniel F. Austin]}
• Leaves: "The young shoots are diuretic, refrigerant and vermifuge[4, 46, 94, 218]. They have been eaten as a treatment for cancer[257]. The leaves have been used in a steam bath as a treatment for arthritis[257]. A poultice of the pounded fronds and leaves has been used to treat sores of any type and also to bind broken bones in place[257]." ^[PFAF]
  • "Farther north, the steamed mature fronds are used to make medicinal teas and inhalants for lung disorders and headaches (Moerman 1998)." ^{[Daniel F. Austin]}

Phytochemicals

A variety of chemicals have been identified in bracken such as astragalin, isoquercitrin, rutin, catechol, tannins, pteraquilin, sugar, starch, aliphatic non-drying oil, and pectose micrin; however, there is no indication that these chemicals or their metabolites may be bladder carcinogens.^{[Fishbein CMEEBS]}

Nutritional

Activities

• Root: "The root is antiemetic, antiseptic, appetizer and tonic[257]." ^[PFAF]

Cultivation

"Prefers a light, acid, deep sandy soil[1]. Dislikes shade according to some reports[13, 17] whilst another says that it tolerates full sun but prefers light shade[200]. Prefers a pH in the range 4 to 6[200]. Members of this genus are rarely if ever troubled by browsing deer[233]. This is an extremely invasive plant and is a noxious weed. It is one of the most widespread plants in the world, being found in all parts of the globe other than the extreme north and south[4]. Plants can be cut down twice a year to provide compost material, this will not kill the plants. If the plants are cut down three times a year this will gradually weaken and eventually kill them." ^[PFAF]

• Burning Bracken, on the other hand, survives periodic burning well because its top growth dies down in the fall and the extensive root system is not harmed by fires. ^[EBFF]
• Allelopath: bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) inhibited Douglas-fir seedling growth i n greenhouse cultures. ^{[Waller Allelochemicals]}
• Use as litter: "Dried bracken fronds are very useful in the garden as a mulch for somewhat tender plants. This will keep the soil warmer, protect from wind damage and also keep off some of the rain[4, K]." ^[PFAF] The fronds have been used (and still are) to protect plants from frost. ^[THEB]
  • Harvesting: "The harvesting of Pteridium for litter was a widespread practice and, in terms of the amount of bracken consumed, may have been the most important use to which the plant was put. According to Lightfoot (1777) the utilization of fern for this purpose was “known to every farmer”. Alexander Stewart (1883) recounts a highly improbable conversation with an old woman, in which he was warned not to use green fern for bedding horses or cows, particularly milch cows. Ferns cut in autumn when “brown and ripe”, however, were said to make “excellent bedding for milch cows as for all other cattle,” Smith (1805) describes the harvesting of bracken for litter in autumn, and this seems to have been the standard practice. In the 1830s the bracken in Strathmore was said to be too sparse for profitable regular cutting, and fern was not cut for litter to any large extent, except in dry summers, when straw was likely to be short and scarce (Ritchie, 1909)." ^[THEB]
    
  • Performance: "The effect of bracken litter on the composition and value of dung was investigated by Russel (1908) who concluded that in some respects, absorbency, for example, bracken is preferable to straw. He thought that where bracken is easily obtainable its use for litter is a matter deserving serious consideration." ^[THEB]
    
• Bedding; "A related use of bracken is for ‘carpeting’ or bedding for humans. Evidence for this goes back at least to Roman times. A bracken floor covering was used at the Roman camp of Vindolanda on Hadrian’s Wall (Seaward, 1976), and Palladius, in 1440, wrote that “this mapil, oak, & asshe endureth long In floryng yf me ferne hit wel” (Kurath & Kuhn, n.d.). Until the middle of the 18th century the majority of the tenants in the parish of Fortingall, Perth, “. . . had no such things as beds. They lay on the ground with a little heather, or fern under them’’ (Sinclair, 1792). In some parts of Scotland, after a wedding, the bride and groom were sent to sleep in the barn, fern and a couple of blankets being provided for a bed (Plant, 1952). More sophisticated people would use the bracken to stuff a mattress. Miriam Rothschild (1973) recently exhibited a flea (Pulex irrituns) that she had found in a 10th century Viking pit, the fill of which was dominated by bracken, grasses and clover which, she thought, must once have been the stuffing of a palliasse." ^[THEB]
• Use as compost:
  • "The ashes of the plant are rich in potassium and could be used as a fertilizer[4]."^[PFAF]
    
  • "The whole plant is a very valuable addition to the compost heap, it is rich in potash and makes an excellent compost for tree seeds[67, 94]. Cut twice a year if you want the plants to continue growing, three cuts annually will weaken and eventually kill off the plants." ^[PFAF]
    
  • "Bracken was once in great regard as a compost, even though recent work is against this, because of its low nitrogen content. Francis Bacon (1627) thought that “brakes cast upon the Ground, in the Beginning of Winter, will make it very Fruitfull.” Linton (1878) agreed, recommending them especially for potatoes and, according to Lightfoot (1 777), fern buried beneath potato roots never fails to produce a good crop. In Sutherland cut fern was left to rot on the ground during winter (Pennant, 1776) but, in some areas, the cut, green fern, was gathered into heaps with thistles and “all sorts of green vegetables” and, after covering with earth, was allowed to rot out before being applied to the land (Sinclair, 1794). There is evidence that fern ashes were used as a fertilizer (Sinclair, 1793b). According to John Smith (1805) the use of green fern for manure should take precedence over the cutting of ferns for litter....Recent evidence form the south of England definitely suggests that the use of bracken as compost was known even in Neolithic times (Dimbleby & Evans, 1974)." ^[THEB]
• Use as Fodder: "John Sheail (1971) describes fern fronds being used as winter fodder for rabbits in warrens, and Lees (1842) has recorded that in the Forest of Dean he saw girls carrying recently cut fern fronds, which they retailed at 2d per bushel. It was said to be extensively employed in the forest for feeding pigs, being cut while the fronds were still uncurled, and boiled to produce a slushy, mucilaginous mass. Bladon (1840) describes how, in Wales, the dried fronds were chopped up when dry, mixed with straw or hay, and given in winter to the horses and mules kept for working on tram roads. The feeding of cut fronds to stock is also recorded from Scotland, but, especially when mature, the fronds appear to be poisonous, and cases of cattle being killed by bracken are well known, a review being given by Tocher (1941).... According to earlier authors (e.g. Lightfoot, 1777; Linton, 1878), pigs are very fond of bracken rhizomes, especially if boiled, and it is often suggested (e.g. Nelson, 1946) that on small fields pigs, by ‘rooting’ for, and eating the rhizome, can be used to control the plant. This was investigated by Hendrick (1919) who came to the opposite conclusion, finding that lean pigs would eat the rhizomes, especially if uncooked and unwashed, but that well-fed pigs could not be induced to take them. Cattle, on the other hand, were said to eat the meal made from dried rhizomes “with relish” and, as on a good deep soil up to 43 tons per acre of clean rhizome can be collected, Hendrick concluded that it was a fodder source worthy of consideration in war time, especially as its collection leads to the eventual eradication of the fern." ^[THEB]
  
  • "any attempts have been made to make silage from Pteridium fronds, and Aitken analysed in 1887 several samples from several estates in different parts of Scotland. He stated that the stock to which it was offered ate it readily, and throve on it. He concluded that: “It cannot fail to excite surprise that such a substance as bracken . . . should be found to have the composition of the choicest cultivated fodder” (Aitken, 1888). Attempts to repeat this method since have never been successful (Long & Fenton, 1938), which is somewhat surprising, considering Aitken’s samples came from several farmers working independently, and had been produced by different methods." ^[THEB]

Propagation

"Spores can be surface sown in the same way as other ferns but this plant really does not need any help in spreading itself about. Division is also possible but usually totally unnecessary."^[PFAF]

Warabi

Warabi Starch is a very light-coloured powder made from the roots of Warabi ferns.
The ferns need to be at least 1 or 2 years old before they are harvested.
The roots are ground to a powder, which is then put into a water solution, and filtered. The powder is then dried for 1 1/2 months.
Three grades are produced: "ultimate" (the highest grade), "prime" and "medium." -http://www.cooksinfo.com/warabi-starch, April 4, 2015

Warabi Mochi (Bracken-starch Dumpling) Warabi mochi is a Japanese sweet made by mixing bracken powder (obtained from bracken starch) with water and sugar. These ingredients are then heated until the mixture becomes translucent, whereupon it is dipped into running cold water until it cools and hardens. Typically, it is eaten with brown sugar syrup and soy flour on top. -http://www.narumi-mochi.jp/kaisetsu-e/warabi_mochi.html, April 4, 2015

References

1. DukePhyt - Accessed Feb 13, 2015, http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/
2. E-flora - http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Pteridium%20aquilinum Accessed Dec 18, 2014
3. [EBFF] Evidence for Bracken Fern as a Food for Aboriginal Peoples of Western Washington, Helen H. Norton, Economic Botany, Vol. 33, No. 4 (Oct. - Dec., 1979)
4. [Fishbein CMEEBS]Chemical Mutagens Environmental Effects on Biological Systems, By L Fishbein
5. PFAF - http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Pteridium+aquilinum, Accessed Dec 28, 2014
6. [PFP] Physicochemical and functional properties of fern rhizome (Pteridium aquilinum) starch, Shurong Zhang, Geng Zhong, Beiyu Liu and Bo Wang, Starch - Stärke Volume 63, Issue 8, pages 468–474, August 2011
7. [PPC] PURIFICATION OF PTAQUILOSIDE, A CARCINOGEN FROM PTERIDIUM AQUILINUM, PETER B. OELRICHS, JACK C. NG and JOHN BARTLEY, National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology, The University of Queensland, Phytochemistry, Vol. 40, No. 1, pp. 53-56, 1995
8. [SPI] Selenium reverses Pteridium aquilinum-induced immunotoxic effects, A.O. Latorre, B.D. Caniceiro, H.L. Wysocki Jr., M. Haraguchi, D.R. Gardner, S.L. Górniak, Food and Chemical Toxicology Volume 49, Issue 2, February 2011, Pages 464–470
9. [THEB] The History and Ethnobotany of Bracken, L. Rymer, Botany School, University of Cambridge, Botanical Journal of The Linnean Society, 73, 1976
10. [TPNA] Toxic Plants of North America, By George E. Burrows, Ronald J. Tyrl, Wiley 2013.